1796
March 11: Italian campaign against Austria begins
May 10: Napoleon wins the Battle of Lodi
November 17: Napoleon wins the Battle of Arcole
1797
January 14: Napoleon wins the Battle of Rivoli
1798
May 19: Napoleon begins his Egyptian campaign with an army of 38,000
July 21: Wins Battle of the Pyramids against Mamelukes in Egypt
July 24: Fall of Cairo
August 1: Under the command of Admiral Nelson, the British fleet destroys the French navy in the Battle of the Nile. Napoleon's army is cut off from supplies and communication.
1800
June 14: Battle of Marengo.
1801
July 8: Battle of Algeciras.
1805
October 19: Battle of Ulm.
October 21: Battle of Trafalgar.
Lord Admiral Nelson Killed.
October 30: Battle of Caldiero.
December 2: Battle of Austerlitz.
1806
September 15: Prussia joins Britain and Russia against Napoleon
October 14: Battle of Jena
October 14: Battle of Auerstadt.
1807
February 8: Battle of Eylau.
June 14: Battle of Friedland.
1809
July 5–6: Battle of Wagram - Success for Napoleon, Austria loses territory and must enforce the Continental System
April 19: Battle of Raszyn.
May 22: Battle of Aspern-Essling.
1812
August 4–6: Battle of Smolensk.
September 7, 1812: Battle of Borodino.
October 24: Battle of Maloyaroslavets.
1813
April 2: Battle of Luneburg
May 2: Battle of Lützen.
May 20–21: Battle of Bautzen.
June 21: Battle of Vitoria.
August 15: Siege of Danzig.
August 23: Battle of Großbeeren.
August 26–27: Battle of Dresden.
August 26: Battle of Katzbach.
August 27: Battle of Hagelberg
August 29–30: Battle of Kulm.
September 6: Battle of Dennewitz.
September 16: Battle of the Göhrde.
September 28: Battle of Altenburg.
October 3: Battle of Wartenburg.
October 14: Battle of Liebertwolkwitz.
October 16–19: Battle of Leipzig.
October 30–31: Battle of Hanau.
December 7: Battle of Bornhoft.
December 10: Battle of Sehestedt.
1814
February 10–14: Six Days Campaign.
March 30–31: Battle of Paris.
1815
June 18: Battle of Waterloo.
viernes, 10 de septiembre de 2010
Conflict with Britain
(1799 – 1815) Series of wars that ranged France against shifting alliances of European powers. Originally an attempt to maintain French strength established by the French Revolutionary Wars, they became efforts by Napoleon to affirm his supremacy in the balance of European power. A victory over Austria at the Battle of Marengo (1800) left France the dominant power on the continent. Only Britain remained strong, and its victory at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) ended Napoleon's threat to invade England. Napoleon won major victories in the Battles of Ulm and Austerlitz (1805), Jena and Auerstedt (1806), and Friedland (1807) against an alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The resulting Treaties of Tilsit (1807) and the Treaty of Schönbrunn (1809) left most of Europe from the English Channel to the Russian border either part of the French Empire, controlled by France, or allied to it by treaty. Napoleon's successes resulted from a strategy of moving his army rapidly, attacking quickly, and defeating each of the disconnected enemy units. His enemies' responding strategy was to avoid engagement while withdrawing, forcing Napoleon's supply lines to be overextended; the strategy was successfully used against him by the duke of Wellington in the Peninsular War and by Mikhail, Prince Barclay de Tolly, in Russia. In 1813 the Quadruple Alliance formed to oppose Napoleon and amassed armies that outnumbered his. Defeated at the Battle of Leipzig, he was forced to withdraw west of the Rhine River, and after the invasion of France (1814) he abdicated. He rallied a new army to return in the Hundred Days (1815), but a revived Quadruple Alliance opposed him. His final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo was caused by his inability to surprise and to prevent the two armies, led by Wellington and Gebhard von Blücher, from joining forces to defeat him. With his second abdication and exile, the era of the Napoleonic Wars ended.
Napoleon in Saint Helena
Exile on Saint Helena
Napoleon on Saint Helena
Scene in Plymouth Sound in August 1815, by John James Chalon. Pictured is HMS Bellerophon with Napoleon aboard, shortly before his transferral to HMS Northumberland for delivery to Saint Helena
Longwood House, Saint Helena: site of Napoleon's captivityNapoleon was imprisoned and then exiled to the island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, 2,000 km from any major landmass. In his first two months there, he lived in a pavilion on the Briars estate, which belonged to a William Balcombe. Napoleon became friendly with his family, especially his younger daughter Lucia Elizabeth who later wrote Recollections of the Emperor Napoleon. This friendship ended in 1818 when British authorities became suspicious that Balcombe had acted as an intermediary between Napoleon and Paris and dismissed him from the island.
Napoleon moved to Longwood House in December 1815; it had fallen into disrepair, and the location was damp, windswept and unhealthy. The Times published articles insinuating the British government was trying to hasten his death, and he often complained of the living conditions in letters to the governor and his custodian, Hudson Lowe.With a small cadre of followers, Napoleon dictated his memoirs and criticised his captors—particularly Lowe. Lowe's treatment of Napoleon is regarded as poor by historians such as Frank McLynn. Lowe exacerbated a difficult situation through measures including a reduction in Napoleon's expenditure, a rule that no gifts could be delivered to him if they mentioned his imperial status, and a document his supporters had to sign that guaranteed they would stay with the prisoner indefinitely.
In 1818, The Times reported a false rumour of Napoleon's escape and said the news had been greeted by spontaneous illuminations in London. There was sympathy for him in the British Parliament: Lord Holland gave a speech which demanded the prisoner be treated with no unnecessary harshness.Napoleon kept himself informed of the events through The Times and hoped for release in the event that Holland became prime minister. He also enjoyed the support of Lord Cochrane, who was involved in Chile's and Brazil's struggle for independence and wanted to rescue Napoleon and help him set up a new empire in South America, a scheme frustrated by Napoleon's death in 1821. There were other plots to rescue Napoleon from captivity including one from Texas, where exiled soldiers from the Grande Armée wanted a resurrection of the Napoleonic Empire in America. There was even a plan to rescue him with a primitive submarine. For Lord Byron, Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely and flawed genius. The news that Napoleon had taken up gardening at Longwood also appealed to more domestic British sensibilities.
Death
Further information: Napoleon's Death Mask and Retour des cendres
Frigate Belle-Poule returns Napoleon's remains to France
Napoleon's tomb at Les InvalidesIn February 1821, his health began to fail rapidly, and on 3 May two British physicians who had recently arrived attended him and could only recommend palliatives. He died two days later, after confession, Extreme Unction and Viaticum in the presence of Father Ange Vignali. His last words were, "France, armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine."("France, army, head of the army, Joséphine.") Napoleon's original death mask was created around 6 May, though it is not clear which doctor created it. In his will, he had asked to be buried on the banks of the Seine, but the British governor said he should be buried on St. Helena, in the Valley of the Willows. Hudson Lowe insisted the inscription should read 'Napoleon Bonaparte'; Montholon and Bertrand wanted the Imperial title 'Napoleon' as royalty were signed by their first names only. As a result the tomb was left nameless.
In 1840, Louis-Philippe, King of the French obtained permission from the British to return Napoleon's remains to France. The remains were transported aboard the frigate Belle-Poule, which had been painted black for the occasion, and on 29 November she arrived in Cherbourg. The remains were transferred to the steamship Normandie, which transported them to Le Havre, up the Seine to Rouen and on to Paris. On 15 December, a state funeral was held. The hearse proceeded from the Arc de Triomphe down the Champs-Élysées, across the Place de la Concorde to the Esplanade des Invalides and then to the cupola in St Jérôme's Chapel, where it stayed until the tomb designed by Louis Visconti was completed. In 1861, Napoleon's remains were entombed in a porphyry sarcophagus in the crypt under the dome at Les Invalides.
Cause of death
Napoleon's physician, Francesco Antommarchi, led the autopsy which found the cause of death to be stomach cancer, though he did not sign the official report, stating, "What had I to do with... English reports?"Napoleon's father had died of stomach cancer though this was seemingly unknown at the time of the autopsy. Antommarchi found evidence of a stomach ulcer, and it was the most convenient explanation for the British who wanted to avoid criticism over their care of the emperor.
Napoléon sur son lit de mort [Napoleon on his death bed], by Horace Vernet, 1826In 1955, the diaries of Napoleon's valet, Louis Marchand, appeared in print. His description of Napoleon in the months before his death led Sten Forshufvud to put forward other causes for his death, including deliberate arsenic poisoning, in a 1961 paper in Nature. Arsenic was used as a poison during the era because it was undetectable when administered over a long period. Forshufvud, in a 1978 book with Ben Weider, noted the emperor's body was found to be remarkably well-preserved when moved in 1840. Arsenic is a strong preservative, and therefore this supported the poisoning hypothesis. Forshufvud and Weider observed that Napoleon had attempted to quench abnormal thirst by drinking high levels of orgeat syrup that contained cyanide compounds in the almonds used for flavouring. They maintained that the potassium tartrate used in his treatment prevented his stomach from expellation of these compounds and that the thirst was a symptom of poisoning. Their hypothesis was that the calomel given to Napoleon became an overdose, which killed him and left behind extensive tissue damage.A 2007 article stated that the type of arsenic found in Napoleon's hair shafts was mineral type, the most toxic, and according to toxicologist Patrick Kintz, this supported the conclusion that his death was murder.
The wallpaper used in Longwood contained a high level of arsenic compound used for colouring by British manufacturers. The adhesive, which in the cooler British environment was innocuous, may have grown mould in the more humid climate and emitted the poisonous gas arsine. This theory has been ruled out as it does not explain the arsenic absorption patterns found in other analyses. A 2004 group of researchers claimed treatments imposed on the emperor accidentally caused death by Torsades de pointes—a condition in which the heart ceases to function properly.
There have been modern studies which have supported the original autopsy finding. Researchers, in a 2008 study, analysed samples of Napoleon's hair from throughout his life, and from his family and other contemporaries. All samples had high levels of arsenic, approximately 100 times higher than the current average. According to these researchers, Napoleon's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy, and the high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by intentional poisoning; people were constantly exposed to arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives. A 2007 study found no evidence of arsenic poisoning in the relevant organs and stated that stomach cancer was the cause of death
Napoleon on Saint Helena
Scene in Plymouth Sound in August 1815, by John James Chalon. Pictured is HMS Bellerophon with Napoleon aboard, shortly before his transferral to HMS Northumberland for delivery to Saint Helena
Longwood House, Saint Helena: site of Napoleon's captivityNapoleon was imprisoned and then exiled to the island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, 2,000 km from any major landmass. In his first two months there, he lived in a pavilion on the Briars estate, which belonged to a William Balcombe. Napoleon became friendly with his family, especially his younger daughter Lucia Elizabeth who later wrote Recollections of the Emperor Napoleon. This friendship ended in 1818 when British authorities became suspicious that Balcombe had acted as an intermediary between Napoleon and Paris and dismissed him from the island.
Napoleon moved to Longwood House in December 1815; it had fallen into disrepair, and the location was damp, windswept and unhealthy. The Times published articles insinuating the British government was trying to hasten his death, and he often complained of the living conditions in letters to the governor and his custodian, Hudson Lowe.With a small cadre of followers, Napoleon dictated his memoirs and criticised his captors—particularly Lowe. Lowe's treatment of Napoleon is regarded as poor by historians such as Frank McLynn. Lowe exacerbated a difficult situation through measures including a reduction in Napoleon's expenditure, a rule that no gifts could be delivered to him if they mentioned his imperial status, and a document his supporters had to sign that guaranteed they would stay with the prisoner indefinitely.
In 1818, The Times reported a false rumour of Napoleon's escape and said the news had been greeted by spontaneous illuminations in London. There was sympathy for him in the British Parliament: Lord Holland gave a speech which demanded the prisoner be treated with no unnecessary harshness.Napoleon kept himself informed of the events through The Times and hoped for release in the event that Holland became prime minister. He also enjoyed the support of Lord Cochrane, who was involved in Chile's and Brazil's struggle for independence and wanted to rescue Napoleon and help him set up a new empire in South America, a scheme frustrated by Napoleon's death in 1821. There were other plots to rescue Napoleon from captivity including one from Texas, where exiled soldiers from the Grande Armée wanted a resurrection of the Napoleonic Empire in America. There was even a plan to rescue him with a primitive submarine. For Lord Byron, Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely and flawed genius. The news that Napoleon had taken up gardening at Longwood also appealed to more domestic British sensibilities.
Death
Further information: Napoleon's Death Mask and Retour des cendres
Frigate Belle-Poule returns Napoleon's remains to France
Napoleon's tomb at Les InvalidesIn February 1821, his health began to fail rapidly, and on 3 May two British physicians who had recently arrived attended him and could only recommend palliatives. He died two days later, after confession, Extreme Unction and Viaticum in the presence of Father Ange Vignali. His last words were, "France, armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine."("France, army, head of the army, Joséphine.") Napoleon's original death mask was created around 6 May, though it is not clear which doctor created it. In his will, he had asked to be buried on the banks of the Seine, but the British governor said he should be buried on St. Helena, in the Valley of the Willows. Hudson Lowe insisted the inscription should read 'Napoleon Bonaparte'; Montholon and Bertrand wanted the Imperial title 'Napoleon' as royalty were signed by their first names only. As a result the tomb was left nameless.
In 1840, Louis-Philippe, King of the French obtained permission from the British to return Napoleon's remains to France. The remains were transported aboard the frigate Belle-Poule, which had been painted black for the occasion, and on 29 November she arrived in Cherbourg. The remains were transferred to the steamship Normandie, which transported them to Le Havre, up the Seine to Rouen and on to Paris. On 15 December, a state funeral was held. The hearse proceeded from the Arc de Triomphe down the Champs-Élysées, across the Place de la Concorde to the Esplanade des Invalides and then to the cupola in St Jérôme's Chapel, where it stayed until the tomb designed by Louis Visconti was completed. In 1861, Napoleon's remains were entombed in a porphyry sarcophagus in the crypt under the dome at Les Invalides.
Cause of death
Napoleon's physician, Francesco Antommarchi, led the autopsy which found the cause of death to be stomach cancer, though he did not sign the official report, stating, "What had I to do with... English reports?"Napoleon's father had died of stomach cancer though this was seemingly unknown at the time of the autopsy. Antommarchi found evidence of a stomach ulcer, and it was the most convenient explanation for the British who wanted to avoid criticism over their care of the emperor.
Napoléon sur son lit de mort [Napoleon on his death bed], by Horace Vernet, 1826In 1955, the diaries of Napoleon's valet, Louis Marchand, appeared in print. His description of Napoleon in the months before his death led Sten Forshufvud to put forward other causes for his death, including deliberate arsenic poisoning, in a 1961 paper in Nature. Arsenic was used as a poison during the era because it was undetectable when administered over a long period. Forshufvud, in a 1978 book with Ben Weider, noted the emperor's body was found to be remarkably well-preserved when moved in 1840. Arsenic is a strong preservative, and therefore this supported the poisoning hypothesis. Forshufvud and Weider observed that Napoleon had attempted to quench abnormal thirst by drinking high levels of orgeat syrup that contained cyanide compounds in the almonds used for flavouring. They maintained that the potassium tartrate used in his treatment prevented his stomach from expellation of these compounds and that the thirst was a symptom of poisoning. Their hypothesis was that the calomel given to Napoleon became an overdose, which killed him and left behind extensive tissue damage.A 2007 article stated that the type of arsenic found in Napoleon's hair shafts was mineral type, the most toxic, and according to toxicologist Patrick Kintz, this supported the conclusion that his death was murder.
The wallpaper used in Longwood contained a high level of arsenic compound used for colouring by British manufacturers. The adhesive, which in the cooler British environment was innocuous, may have grown mould in the more humid climate and emitted the poisonous gas arsine. This theory has been ruled out as it does not explain the arsenic absorption patterns found in other analyses. A 2004 group of researchers claimed treatments imposed on the emperor accidentally caused death by Torsades de pointes—a condition in which the heart ceases to function properly.
There have been modern studies which have supported the original autopsy finding. Researchers, in a 2008 study, analysed samples of Napoleon's hair from throughout his life, and from his family and other contemporaries. All samples had high levels of arsenic, approximately 100 times higher than the current average. According to these researchers, Napoleon's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy, and the high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by intentional poisoning; people were constantly exposed to arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives. A 2007 study found no evidence of arsenic poisoning in the relevant organs and stated that stomach cancer was the cause of death
The 100 Days
The Hundred Days: 1 March-18 June 1815
After the Battle of Leipzig in October 1814, the Allied powers exiled Napoleon to Elba, an island just off the coast of Italy. It does seem strange that they supposed that Napoleon would settle down as the ruler of a tiny island, after all his conquests throughout Europe. However, Napoleon had been watching and waiting while he kept himself informed about the disagreements between the Allied powers and the disaffection in France with Louis XVIII.
On 1 March, Napoleon left the island of Elba with about a thousand men and landed near Cannes with the intention to
stake his claim to rule France
resume his conquest of Europe
liberate France from the Allies
He baffled attempts to waylay him by a swift advance through the foothills of the Alps and appeared at Grenoble on 4 March. His proclamations stirred his old troops. "Soldiers, your general, called to the throne by the choice of the people, and raised on your shields, has come back to you. Come and join him! I am sprung from the Revolution. I am come to save the people from the slavery into which priests and nobles would plunge them."
Louis XVIII sent General Ney to capture Napoleon: Ney promised to "bring him back in an iron cage". However, when Ney met Napoleon and sent the troops to to arrest him he stepped forward and, opening the familiar grey overcoat, exclaimed: "Let him among you who wants to kill his Emperor, fire!" The soldiers broke into cheers, surged round him, and rummaged in their knapsacks for the tricolor cockades long hidden there. When Ney came into contact with his old master, memories were too much for him and he went over to him with all his men.
The restored monarchy had offended and alarmed so many Frenchmen in so many ways that they looked upon Napoleon as a deliverer and an avenger. Courtiers and ministers protested loyalty to the King - but took steps to make themselves safe with the Emperor. Louis XVIII left hurriedly for Ghent. When Napoleon drove up to the Tuileries at midnight on 20 March, he was greeted with delirious enthusiasm. Some of his old marshals, such as Macdonald and Marmont, remained aloof; but others, such as Devout and Soult, followed the example of Ney.
To please Lafayette and the old republicans he summoned the Chambers and issued an Acte Additionnel aux Constitutions de l'Empire. This was an attempt to outdo Louis XVIII, promising a more democratic franchise and more unrestricted liberty for the individual. In the preamble Napoleon gave a novel interpretation of his actions during the past ten years. His purpose, he said, had always been to establish a Federation of Europe founded on liberal principles. Unfortunately the opposition of monarchs and aristocrats - especially the English - had involved him in wars and had frustrated his plans. Those plans could not be resumed without yet another war, which it was against his principles to provoke; but within the limits of the Empire his name should ever stand for the ideas of 1789, peace and free institutions. To the Allied Sovereigns he sent a message declaring that he had heard the voice of posterity. He now desired peace with all men; and though he would never have signed the Treaty of Paris, yet he would faithfully observe it. The peacefulness of a constitutional monarch would accord with his declining years.
The Powers at Vienna were not impressed by his fair words. All Talleyrand's skill in dissolving the Coalition was wasted. When Napoleon sent the Czar the secret treaty between France, Austria and Britain, which he had found in Louis XVIII's desk at the Tuileries, Alexander merely showed it to the embarrassed Metternich and then put it on the fire, saying, "Let us forget all that: the question now is to over throw our common enemy." They declared that Napoleon had placed himself outside the pale of civil and social relations, and renewed the Treaty of Chaumont. Wellington, the chief British plenipotentiary at the Congress, was appointed to the supreme command of the Allied forces, and at once left Vienna to take up his duties.
Meanwhile Napoleon was reorganising the French army. Most of the �migr� officers had fled, but there was no lack of war-hardened veterans to replace them. They and the thousands of prisoners of war returned from Russia enabled him to create in a month the best army he had had since 1812 - perhaps since 1807. However, Napoleon was not the man he had been, except in fits and starts. The man of action had degenerated into an overweight, sleepy, easy-going and garrulous man who lacked the "get-up-and-go" of his earlier years.
By 20 March, Napoleon was in Paris with an army of 140,000 regular troops and a volunteer reserve of about 200,000. The Allies had been caught unawares; Napoleon was not prepared to fight on French soil so he took battle to his enemies. The Allied armies were divided:
Wellington and his army were at Brussels
Blucher and his Prussian army were at Li�ge
Napoleon intended to defeat them separately.
The Prussians at Li�ge
The two armies met on 16 June 1815 at the Battle of Ligny and the Prussians were routed. Napoleon thought that they were so badly beaten that he allowed them to retire - in reasonably good order - instead of following up and ensuring his victory. The Prussians went to Wavre; Napoleon thought they were heading for Namur (the opposite direction). Eventually, he sent General Grouchy to Namur to finish off the Prussians, with a third of the French army. This was to prevent Blucher joining up with Wellington.
The British at Brussels
Ney led the French at the Battle of Quatre Bras, also on 16 June 1815. It was a stalemate but Ney allowed Wellington to withdraw and take up a better position above Charleroi, at Waterloo.
Ney and Napoleon joined their armies and faced Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Napoleon is reported to have said, "Wellington is a bad general, the English are bad troops and it will be a picnic". Wellington's verdict on the battle was that "it was a damned close-run thing".
Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo ended the Hundred Days. He surrendered to Captain Maitland of HMS Bellerophon and spent his last six years on the island of St Helena. Napoleon died there on 5 May 1821.
After the Battle of Leipzig in October 1814, the Allied powers exiled Napoleon to Elba, an island just off the coast of Italy. It does seem strange that they supposed that Napoleon would settle down as the ruler of a tiny island, after all his conquests throughout Europe. However, Napoleon had been watching and waiting while he kept himself informed about the disagreements between the Allied powers and the disaffection in France with Louis XVIII.
On 1 March, Napoleon left the island of Elba with about a thousand men and landed near Cannes with the intention to
stake his claim to rule France
resume his conquest of Europe
liberate France from the Allies
He baffled attempts to waylay him by a swift advance through the foothills of the Alps and appeared at Grenoble on 4 March. His proclamations stirred his old troops. "Soldiers, your general, called to the throne by the choice of the people, and raised on your shields, has come back to you. Come and join him! I am sprung from the Revolution. I am come to save the people from the slavery into which priests and nobles would plunge them."
Louis XVIII sent General Ney to capture Napoleon: Ney promised to "bring him back in an iron cage". However, when Ney met Napoleon and sent the troops to to arrest him he stepped forward and, opening the familiar grey overcoat, exclaimed: "Let him among you who wants to kill his Emperor, fire!" The soldiers broke into cheers, surged round him, and rummaged in their knapsacks for the tricolor cockades long hidden there. When Ney came into contact with his old master, memories were too much for him and he went over to him with all his men.
The restored monarchy had offended and alarmed so many Frenchmen in so many ways that they looked upon Napoleon as a deliverer and an avenger. Courtiers and ministers protested loyalty to the King - but took steps to make themselves safe with the Emperor. Louis XVIII left hurriedly for Ghent. When Napoleon drove up to the Tuileries at midnight on 20 March, he was greeted with delirious enthusiasm. Some of his old marshals, such as Macdonald and Marmont, remained aloof; but others, such as Devout and Soult, followed the example of Ney.
To please Lafayette and the old republicans he summoned the Chambers and issued an Acte Additionnel aux Constitutions de l'Empire. This was an attempt to outdo Louis XVIII, promising a more democratic franchise and more unrestricted liberty for the individual. In the preamble Napoleon gave a novel interpretation of his actions during the past ten years. His purpose, he said, had always been to establish a Federation of Europe founded on liberal principles. Unfortunately the opposition of monarchs and aristocrats - especially the English - had involved him in wars and had frustrated his plans. Those plans could not be resumed without yet another war, which it was against his principles to provoke; but within the limits of the Empire his name should ever stand for the ideas of 1789, peace and free institutions. To the Allied Sovereigns he sent a message declaring that he had heard the voice of posterity. He now desired peace with all men; and though he would never have signed the Treaty of Paris, yet he would faithfully observe it. The peacefulness of a constitutional monarch would accord with his declining years.
The Powers at Vienna were not impressed by his fair words. All Talleyrand's skill in dissolving the Coalition was wasted. When Napoleon sent the Czar the secret treaty between France, Austria and Britain, which he had found in Louis XVIII's desk at the Tuileries, Alexander merely showed it to the embarrassed Metternich and then put it on the fire, saying, "Let us forget all that: the question now is to over throw our common enemy." They declared that Napoleon had placed himself outside the pale of civil and social relations, and renewed the Treaty of Chaumont. Wellington, the chief British plenipotentiary at the Congress, was appointed to the supreme command of the Allied forces, and at once left Vienna to take up his duties.
Meanwhile Napoleon was reorganising the French army. Most of the �migr� officers had fled, but there was no lack of war-hardened veterans to replace them. They and the thousands of prisoners of war returned from Russia enabled him to create in a month the best army he had had since 1812 - perhaps since 1807. However, Napoleon was not the man he had been, except in fits and starts. The man of action had degenerated into an overweight, sleepy, easy-going and garrulous man who lacked the "get-up-and-go" of his earlier years.
By 20 March, Napoleon was in Paris with an army of 140,000 regular troops and a volunteer reserve of about 200,000. The Allies had been caught unawares; Napoleon was not prepared to fight on French soil so he took battle to his enemies. The Allied armies were divided:
Wellington and his army were at Brussels
Blucher and his Prussian army were at Li�ge
Napoleon intended to defeat them separately.
The Prussians at Li�ge
The two armies met on 16 June 1815 at the Battle of Ligny and the Prussians were routed. Napoleon thought that they were so badly beaten that he allowed them to retire - in reasonably good order - instead of following up and ensuring his victory. The Prussians went to Wavre; Napoleon thought they were heading for Namur (the opposite direction). Eventually, he sent General Grouchy to Namur to finish off the Prussians, with a third of the French army. This was to prevent Blucher joining up with Wellington.
The British at Brussels
Ney led the French at the Battle of Quatre Bras, also on 16 June 1815. It was a stalemate but Ney allowed Wellington to withdraw and take up a better position above Charleroi, at Waterloo.
Ney and Napoleon joined their armies and faced Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Napoleon is reported to have said, "Wellington is a bad general, the English are bad troops and it will be a picnic". Wellington's verdict on the battle was that "it was a damned close-run thing".
Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo ended the Hundred Days. He surrendered to Captain Maitland of HMS Bellerophon and spent his last six years on the island of St Helena. Napoleon died there on 5 May 1821.
His Military Career
Napoleon Bonaparte
Emperor of France
1769-1821
One of the most brilliant individuals in history, Napoleon Bonaparte was a masterful soldier, an unequalled grand tactician and a superb administrator. He was also utterly ruthless, a dictator and, later in his career, thought he could do no wrong.
Not a Frenchman by birth, Napoleon Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio on Corsica - only just sold to France by the Italian state of Genoa - on 15 August 1769 and learnt French at the school of Autun and later the military academy at Brienne. He never fully mastered French and his spelling left a lot to be desired.
The revolutionary fever that was spreading when Bonaparte was a teenager allowed a talented individual the opportunity to rise far beyond what could have been achieved only a few years previously.
His first real military opportunity came as a captain of artillery at the siege of Toulon, where he expertly seized crucial forts and was able to bombard the British naval and land forces, eventually forcing them to sail away.
Now a brigadier-general, Bonaparte served in the army campaigning in Italy but found himself arrested and jailed for being an associate of the younger brother of Maximilien Robespierre.
With no position for him after his release, Bonaparte thought about joining the Turkish army and even joining a naval expedition to Australia, but became involved with a member of the Directory, Paul Barras, who used the young man's zeal to put down a royalist mob in 1795 with the now legendary "whiff of grapeshot".
With his loyalty and ruthlessness proven, the next year Bonaparte took up command of the Army of Italy and set off on a campaign that was to take him to absolute power in France and Europe.
Initially treated with suspicion, and not a little contempt, by the older generals he superceded, Bonaparte won over his badly treated soldiers with promises of great things to come and a large helping of personal bravery. Like Caesar, he was not afraid to get into the thick of the fighting to inspire his men.
In a series of battles that included such as Montenotte, Mondovi, Arcola and Rivoli, Bonaparte swept the board of ageing Austrian generals and established himself as one of the leading soldiers of his time.
After masterminding the Peace of Campo Formio, Bonaparte returned to Paris where he took command of the Army of England, an imposing force neutered by England's wooden walls of its navy.
Desperate to be both at Britain and pushing his own reputation, Bonaparte planned an expedition to Egypt to threaten his foe's trading routes. He sailed from Toulon in 1798 and, after capturing Malta, made it to Egypt in early July.The campaign began brilliantly when he smashed the power of the ruling Mamelukes at the Battle of the Pyramids, but was crippled when Nelson's hound-pack fleet finally caught up with the French navy at Aboukir (Battle of the Nile) and sank all but four of the 17-ship force.
Stranded and with suspect supply lines, Bonaparte moved into Syria and won the battle of Mt Tabor before being halted by fierce and stubborn resistance at Acre.
Stricken with disease and wary of a mass revolt in Cairo, the French made a horrendous march through the deserts of the Sinai, but arrived at Aboukir in good enough condition to crush another Turkish force.
Realising the potential success of his campaign was now limited, if not impossible, Bonaparte decided to abandon his army and get back to the centre of power - Paris - and make sure his position had not been undermined.
Popular with the people, Bonaparte found the loathed Directory very cool towards his surprise arrival and no doubt took pleasure in their discomfort when he, Abbe Sieyes and Roger Ducos seized power in the Coup de Brumaire, which saw them share power as equal consuls. Within months Bonaparte was First Consul and had eased his "equals" into early retirement.
The next stage in Bonaparte's career came in 1800, when he again moved into Italy with another brilliant manouevre that saw him lead the French army over the Alps and surprise the occupying Austrians.
It almost proved to be a blunder - as Bonaparte was in turn caught by surprise at the tenacity of General Melas who attacked him at Marengo. Holding on for grim life the situation was saved for Bonaparte by General Louis Desaix's arrival with reinforcements and what was a lost battle became a stunning victory for the First Consul.
Emperor of France
1769-1821
One of the most brilliant individuals in history, Napoleon Bonaparte was a masterful soldier, an unequalled grand tactician and a superb administrator. He was also utterly ruthless, a dictator and, later in his career, thought he could do no wrong.
Not a Frenchman by birth, Napoleon Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio on Corsica - only just sold to France by the Italian state of Genoa - on 15 August 1769 and learnt French at the school of Autun and later the military academy at Brienne. He never fully mastered French and his spelling left a lot to be desired.
The revolutionary fever that was spreading when Bonaparte was a teenager allowed a talented individual the opportunity to rise far beyond what could have been achieved only a few years previously.
His first real military opportunity came as a captain of artillery at the siege of Toulon, where he expertly seized crucial forts and was able to bombard the British naval and land forces, eventually forcing them to sail away.
Now a brigadier-general, Bonaparte served in the army campaigning in Italy but found himself arrested and jailed for being an associate of the younger brother of Maximilien Robespierre.
With no position for him after his release, Bonaparte thought about joining the Turkish army and even joining a naval expedition to Australia, but became involved with a member of the Directory, Paul Barras, who used the young man's zeal to put down a royalist mob in 1795 with the now legendary "whiff of grapeshot".
With his loyalty and ruthlessness proven, the next year Bonaparte took up command of the Army of Italy and set off on a campaign that was to take him to absolute power in France and Europe.
Initially treated with suspicion, and not a little contempt, by the older generals he superceded, Bonaparte won over his badly treated soldiers with promises of great things to come and a large helping of personal bravery. Like Caesar, he was not afraid to get into the thick of the fighting to inspire his men.
In a series of battles that included such as Montenotte, Mondovi, Arcola and Rivoli, Bonaparte swept the board of ageing Austrian generals and established himself as one of the leading soldiers of his time.
After masterminding the Peace of Campo Formio, Bonaparte returned to Paris where he took command of the Army of England, an imposing force neutered by England's wooden walls of its navy.
Desperate to be both at Britain and pushing his own reputation, Bonaparte planned an expedition to Egypt to threaten his foe's trading routes. He sailed from Toulon in 1798 and, after capturing Malta, made it to Egypt in early July.The campaign began brilliantly when he smashed the power of the ruling Mamelukes at the Battle of the Pyramids, but was crippled when Nelson's hound-pack fleet finally caught up with the French navy at Aboukir (Battle of the Nile) and sank all but four of the 17-ship force.
Stranded and with suspect supply lines, Bonaparte moved into Syria and won the battle of Mt Tabor before being halted by fierce and stubborn resistance at Acre.
Stricken with disease and wary of a mass revolt in Cairo, the French made a horrendous march through the deserts of the Sinai, but arrived at Aboukir in good enough condition to crush another Turkish force.
Realising the potential success of his campaign was now limited, if not impossible, Bonaparte decided to abandon his army and get back to the centre of power - Paris - and make sure his position had not been undermined.
Popular with the people, Bonaparte found the loathed Directory very cool towards his surprise arrival and no doubt took pleasure in their discomfort when he, Abbe Sieyes and Roger Ducos seized power in the Coup de Brumaire, which saw them share power as equal consuls. Within months Bonaparte was First Consul and had eased his "equals" into early retirement.
The next stage in Bonaparte's career came in 1800, when he again moved into Italy with another brilliant manouevre that saw him lead the French army over the Alps and surprise the occupying Austrians.
It almost proved to be a blunder - as Bonaparte was in turn caught by surprise at the tenacity of General Melas who attacked him at Marengo. Holding on for grim life the situation was saved for Bonaparte by General Louis Desaix's arrival with reinforcements and what was a lost battle became a stunning victory for the First Consul.
His Conquests
Napoleon with the battle of Austerlitz
The battle of Austerlitz is considered by many historians as the most successful battle, most succeeded of Napoleon Bonaparte who fine tactician, completes with this battle (still today taught in many military academies) the brilliant countryside that it carried out since the sand of Boulogne-sur-Mer to the snow of Austerlitz.Military conquests of Napoleon
Others still point out the heritage of the Revolution: Napoleon was to defend the natural borders that its adversaries and especially Great Britain did not want to recognize in France. Noticing that Great Britain was present in all the successive coalitions directed against France, others reflect ahead the role of the British imperialism, which could not accept the Napoleonean attempts to compete with it in the economic domain: even when it wished peace, Napoleon ran up against the British opposition.
One also could show the logical bond, after 1807, between the continental Blockade and the interventions in Italy, in the Baltic, in the Iberian peninsula and, in 1812, in Russia: it was necessary, so that the blockade was effective, to control all the shores by where the British goods had been able to unload, to oblige the tsar, the old ally, to respect its engagements.
There is in all these explanations a share of truth, but none can with it only claim to incarnate it. One could also add the hatred of the aristocracies against that which they presented like the parvenu of the Revolution, the hatred of the people which forged in the suffering of oppression the national feeling which will raise them in 1813.
Napoleonean strategy
Napoleon was the Master of the army; he was very little worried to train general officers who had been able to help it effectively; given up with themselves, the marshals were poor. The preparation of the campaigns extremely left something to be desired; never Napoleon could do without the suppliers, who, such famous Ouvrard, piled up scandalous fortunes. The lack of money forced to delay the payment of the balances, to neglect clothing, food, the means of transport: the war was to nourish the war. In the same way, the armament remained summary; the improvisation remained the rule. This is why the victory was to be fulgurating and immediate: nothing with the back was ready to support a long campaign.
The Napoleonean strategy rested on simple principles: to attract the enemy on a ground chosen, to bring it by a man work feints to weaken a point, to break the unfavourable line at this precise place then to insulate and to split up the various enemy groups; an alternative consisted in voluntarily yielding on the center to make it wrap by the going wing; the continuation completed the victory. As for the tactics, it had hardly varied: a lot of riflemen progressed in loose order by using the ground, exhausted the adversary arranged on line by a heavy fire; the infantry could attack then, sweeping the enemy rows by her mass. The cavalry was used to break the unfavourable lines, to cut up them and continue the runaways. As for artillery, concentrated in strong units, it prepared, by its fire power, the action of the infantry.
An evolution occurred during the years: gradually, the French came from there to neglect the preparation of the attack by the riflemen while at the same time the adversaries initiated themselves with the new practices, increased the fire power of their formations; from there French disappointments in Spain and in Waterloo. Moreover, conceived for a victory fast and striking down in rich countries and of average extent, without average techniques nor sure communications, the Napoleonean army was going to face insurmountable difficulties as soon as it would meet the vast wide ones of Germany of North, of Poland and Russia, the extreme or frozen deserts of Spain.
Various campaigns of Napoleon
1800 - 1804
Period of the Consulate 1800
Countryside of Italy
1803
Countryside of Boulogne
1804 - 1814
Period of the Empire
1805
Countryside of Germany
1806 -1807
Countryside of Prussia and Poland
1809
Countryside of Germany and Austria
1807 - 1814
War of Spain
1812
Countryside of Russia
1814
Countryside of France
1814 - 1815
100 days period
1815
Countryside of Belgium
The geographical distribution
Napoleonean Empire in 1811
Chart Alain Houot
Three geographically distinct fields composed the system: the Italian field, the Iberian peninsula and the German group, to which one can attach the Netherlands and Switzerland.
The Italian field
The Italian field understood French Italy, the kingdom of Italy, the provinces illyriennes, the kingdom of Naples. It was marked the most. Everywhere, the Civil code was introduced, abolished feudality, the simplified administration. In the kingdom of Italy, whose sovereign in title was Napoleon, the government was entrusted to Eugene de Beauharnais. In this creation, where it did not have to take account of the monarchical tradition nor of the revolutionary memories, it accentuated centralization methodically, multiplied the civils servant, carried out the modernization of the army, introduced the Civil code, narrowly subordinated the kingdom to the French economy. The middle-class, which provides many officers to the army, showed a certain attachment for the mode, but the condition of the peasants hardly evolved.
The kingdom of Naples, initially given to Joseph, then after 1808 in Murat, was also deeply transformed: a land reform was installation, but with the fall of Murat one was only at the beginnings. It is in the old States of the pope that resistance was sharpest: the populations, accustomed for some to the begging and the armed robbery, for others with the resources drawn from the presence of the pontifical court, did not forgive the administrative effort and the departure of the pope. In 1814, Italy was in full transformation.
The Iberian peninsula
The Iberian peninsula, theoretically annexed in 1808, Joseph becoming king d' Espagne, was never subjected: no reform was implemented safe in Catalonia, where they were very moderate.
The Netherlands, country where existed a strong national tradition and where domination of the middle-class was old, was spared initially; when it had been annexed, the attempts at assimilation encountered a deaf resistance, especially with regard to finances and the land reform.
The German group
The Confederation of the Rhine, created in 1806, was a vast heteroclite grouping of vassal territories, without bonds between them, if it is not the person of their guard. Two States depended directly on the Emperor: the Grand Duchy of Berg, managed by Napoleon after the departure of Murat, and the kingdom of Westphalia, amputee of his shores of the North Sea in 1810. It is in the latter that the introduction of the system was most complete; it constituted for Germany a kind of model State.
The nobility suffered from the loss of its privileges, but was comforted by accepting the loads and the honors; as for the middle-class, it was, like everywhere else, large the recipient of the transformations. Napoleon was only the guard of the other States of the Confederation; nevertheless, they underwent transformations in general, except with regard to the political regime and the release of the peasants. Though the Grand Duchy of Warsaw had been offered to the duke of Saxony, Napoleon also proceeded to it to reforms, copied on the French model, but, not being able to be based on a non-existent middle-class, it preserved its preponderance at the nobility. Thus, so everywhere the reform of the State was started, everywhere the social reform was attenuated or fell through.
jueves, 9 de septiembre de 2010
martes, 7 de septiembre de 2010
All about his life
Name and title:
Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon 1st of France.
Originally Napoleone Buonaparte, also unofficially known as The Little Corporal (Le Petit Caporal) and The Corsican. More on 'Was Napoleon Short?'
Dates:
Born: 15th August 1769 in Ajaccio, Corsica
Married (Josephine): 9th March 1796 in Paris, France
Married (Marie-Louise): 2nd April 1810 in Paris, France
Died: 5th May 1821 on St. Helena
First Consul of France: 1799 - 1804
Emperor of the French: 1804 - 1814, 1815
Biography of Napoleon Bonaparte:
One of the greatest military commanders and a risk taking gambler; a workaholic genius and an impatient short term planner; a vicious cynic who forgave his closest betrayers; a misogynist who could enthrall men; Napoleon Bonaparte was all of these and more, the twice-emperor of France whose military endeavors and sheer personality dominated Europe in person for a decade, and in thought for a century.
Birth in Corsica
Napoleon was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15th 1769 to Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer and political opportunist, and his wife, Marie-Letizia. The Buonaparte's were a wealthy family from the Corsican nobility, although when compared to the great aristocracies of France Napoleon's kin were poor and pretentious. A combination of Carlo's social climbing, Letizia's adultery with the Comte de Marbeuf - Corsica's French military governor - and Napoleon's own ability enabled him to enter the military academy at Brienne in 1779. He moved to the Parisian École Royale Militaire in 1784 and graduated a year later as a second lieutenant in the artillery. Spurred on by his father's death in February 1785, the future emperor had completed in one year a course that often took three.
Early Career: The Corsican Misadventure
Despite being posted on the French mainland, Napoleon was able to spend much of the next eight years in Corsica thanks to his ferocious letter writing and rule bending, as well as the effects of the French Revolution and sheer good luck. There he played an active part in political and military matters, initially supporting the Corsican rebel Pasquale Paoli, a former patron of Carlo Buonaparte. Military promotion also followed, but Napoleon became opposed to Paoli and when civil war erupted in 1793 the Buonapartes fled to France, where they adopted the French version of their name: Bonaparte. Historians have frequently used the Corsican affair as a microcosm of Napoleon's career.
Early Career: Fluctuating Success
The French Revolution had decimated the republic's officer class and favoured individuals could achieve swift promotion, but Napoleon's fortunes rose and fell as one set of patrons came and went. By December 1793 Bonaparte was the hero of Toulon, a General and favourite of Augustin Robespierre; shortly after the wheel of revolution turned and Napoleon was arrested for treason. Tremendous political 'flexibility' saved him and the patronage of Vicomte Paul de Baras, soon to be one of France's three 'Directors', followed.
Napoleon became a hero again in 1795, defending the government from angry counter-revolutionary forces; Baras rewarded Napoleon by promoting him to high military office, a position with access to the political spine of France. Bonaparte swiftly grew into one of the country's most respected military authorities - largely by never keeping his opinions to himself - and he married Josephine de Beauharnais. Commentators have considered this an unusual match ever since.
Napoleon and The Army of Italy
In 1796 France attacked Austria. Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy - the post he wanted - whereupon he welded a young, starving and disgruntled army into a force which won victory after victory against, theoretically stronger, Austrian opponents. Aside from the Battle of Arcole, where Napoleon was lucky rather than clever, the campaign is legitimately legendary. Napoleon returned to France in 1797 as the nation's brightest star, having fully emerged from the need for a patron. Ever a great self-publicist, he maintained the profile of a political independent, thanks partly to the newspapers he now ran.
Failure in the Middle East, Power in France
In May 1798 Napoleon left for a campaign in Egypt and Syria, prompted by his desire for fresh victories, the French need to threaten Britain's empire in India and the Directory's concerns that their famous general might seize power. The Egyptian campaign was a military failure (although it had a great cultural impact) and a change of government in France caused Bonaparte to leave - some might say abandon - his army and return in the August of 1799. Shortly after he took part in the Brumaire coup of November 1799, finishing as a member of the Consulate, France's new ruling triumvirate.
First Consul
The transfer of power might not have been smooth - owing much to luck and apathy - but Napoleon's great political skill was clear; by February 1800 he was established as the First Consul, a practical dictatorship with a constitution wrapped firmly around him. However, France was still at war with her fellows in Europe and Napoleon set out to beat them. He did so within a year, although the key triumph - the Battle of Marengo, fought in June 1800 - was won by the French General Desaix.
From Reformer to Emperor
Having concluded treaties that left Europe at peace Bonaparte began working on France, reforming the economy, legal system (the famous and enduring Code Napoleon), church, military, education and government. He studied and commented on minute details, often while travelling with the army, and the reforms continued for most of his rule. Bonaparte exhibited an undeniable skill as both legislator and statesmen - a study of these achievements could rival those of his campaigns for size and depth - but many have argued that this talent was deeply flawed and even fervent supporters admit that Napoleon made mistakes. The Consul's popularity remained high - helped by his mastery of propaganda, but also genuine national support - and he was elected Consulate for life by the French people in 1802 and Emperor of France in 1804, a title which Bonaparte worked hard to maintain and glorify.
A Return to War
Nevertheless, Europe was not at peace for long. Napoleon's fame, ambitions and character were based on conquest, making it almost inevitable that his reorganised Grande Armée would fight further wars. However, other European countries also sought conflict, for not only did they distrust and fear Bonaparte, they also retained their hostility towards revolutionary France. If either side has sought peace, the battles would still have continued.
For the next eight years Napoleon dominated Europe, fighting and defeating a range of alliances involving combinations of Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia. Sometimes his victories were crushing - such as Austerlitz in 1805, often cited as the greatest military victory ever - and on other occasions he was either very lucky, fought almost to a standstill, or both; Wagram stands as an example of the latter. Bonaparte forged new states in Europe, including the German Confederation - built from the ruins of the Holy Roman Empire - and the Duchy of Warsaw, whilst also installing his family and favourites in positions of great power: Murat became King of Naples and Bernadotte King of Sweden, the latter in spite of his frequent treachery and failure. The reforms continued and Bonaparte had an ever-increasing effect on culture and technology, becoming a patron of both the arts and sciences while stimulating creative responses across Europe.
Napoleon’s Failings
Napoleon also made mistakes and suffered setbacks. The French navy was kept firmly in check by their British equivalent and the Emperor's attempt to tame Britain through economics - the Continental System - harmed France and her supposed allies greatly. Bonaparte's interference in Spain caused even larger problems, as the Spanish refused to accept Napoleon's brother Joseph as ruler, instead fighting a vicious guerilla war against the French invaders.
The Spanish 'ulcer' highlights another problem of Bonaparte's reign: he couldn't be everywhere within his empire at once, and the forces he sent to pacify Spain failed, as they often did elsewhere. Meanwhile, British forces gained a toehold in Portugal, slowly fighting their way across the peninsula and drawing ever more troops and resources from France itself. Nevertheless, these were Napoleon's glory days, and on March 11th 1810 he married his second wife, Marie-Louise; his only legitimate child - Napoleon II - was born just over a year later, on March 20th 1811.
1812: Napoleon’s Disaster in Russia
The Napoleonic Empire may have shown signs of decline by 1811, including a downturn in diplomatic fortunes and continuing failure in Spain, but such matters were overshadowed by what happened next. In 1812 Napoleon went to war with Russia, assembling a force of over 400,000 soldiers, accompanied by the same number of followers and support. Such an army was almost impossible to feed or adequately control and the Russians repeatedly retreated, destroying the local resources and separating Bonaparte from his supplies.
The Emperor continually dithered, eventually reaching Moscow on September 8th after the Battle of Borodino, a bludgeoning conflict where over 80,000 soldiers died. However, the Russians refused to surrender, instead torching Moscow and forcing Napoleon into a long retreat back to friendly territory. The Grande Armée was assailed by starvation, extremes of weather and terrifying Russian partisans throughout, and by the end of 1812 only 10,000 soldiers were able to fight. Many of the rest had died in horrible conditions, with the camp's followers faring even worse.
In the final half of 1812 Napoleon had destroyed most of his army, suffered a humiliating retreat, made an enemy of Russia, obliterated France's stock of horses and shattered his reputation. A coup had been attempted in his absence and his enemies in Europe were re-invigorated, forming a grand alliance intent on removing him. As vast numbers of enemy soldiers advanced across Europe towards France, over-turning the states Bonaparte had created, the Emperor raised, equipped and fielded a new army. This was a remarkable achievement but the combined forces of Russia, Prussia, Austria and others just used a simple plan, retreating from the emperor himself and advancing again when he moved to face the next threat.
1813-1814 and Abdication
Throughout 1813 and into 1814 the pressure grew on Napoleon; not only were his enemies grinding his forces down and approaching Paris, but the British had fought out of Spain and into France, the Grande Armée's Marshalls were underperforming and Bonaparte had lost the French public's support. Nevertheless, for the first half of 1814 Napoleon exhibited the military genius of his youth, but it was a war he couldn't win alone. On March 30th, 1814, Paris surrendered to allied forces without a fight and, facing massive betrayal and impossible military odds, Napoleon abdicated as Emperor of France; he was exiled to the Island of Elba.
The 100 Days and Exile
Undoubtedly bored and aware of the continuing discontent in France, Napoleon made a sensational return to power in 1815. Travelling to France in secret, he attracted vast support and reclaimed his Imperial throne, as well as re-organising the army and government. This was anathema to his enemies and after a series of initial engagements Bonaparte was narrowly defeated in one of history's greatest battles: Waterloo.
This final adventure had occurred in less than 100 days, closing with Napoleon's second abdication on June 25th 1815, whereupon British forces forced him into further exile. Housed on St. Helena, a small rocky island well away from Europe, Napoleon's health and character fluctuated; he died within six years, on May 5th 1821, aged 51. The causes of his death have been debated ever since, and conspiracy theories involving poison are rife.
Conclusion
Simple narratives of Napleon's life can fill whole books, let alone detailed discussions of his achievements, and historians remain divided over the Emperor: was he a cruel tyrant or an enlightened despot? Was he a tortured genius or a blunderer with luck on his side? These discussions are unlikely to be resolved, thanks partly to the weight of source material - making it unlikely that a historian could truly master everything - and Napoleon himself.
He is, and remains, so fascinating precisely because he was such a massive blend of contradictions - itself prohibiting conclusions - and because of the massive effect he had on Europe: no one should forget that he helped first perpetuate, then actively create, a state of European wide-warfare that lasted for twenty years. Few individuals have ever had such a huge effect on the world, on economics, politics, technology, culture and society, making Bonaparte's life more fantastic than any believable fiction.
Nevertheless, it is possible to attempt a small summary on his character: Napoleon may not have been a general of utter genius, but he was very good; he may not have been the best politician of his age, but he was often superb; he may not have been a perfect legislator, but his contributions were hugely important. Whether you admire him or hate him, the real and undoubted genius of Napoleon, the qualities that have drawn praise such as Promethean, was to combine all these talents, to have somehow - be it luck, talent or force of will - risen from chaos, then built, steered and spectacularly destroyed an empire before doing it all again in a tiny microcosm one year later. Whether hero or tyrant, the reverberations were felt across Europe for a century.
Notable Family of Napoleon Bonaparte:
Father: Carlo Buonaparte (1746-85)
Mother: Marie-Letizia Bonaparte, née Ramolino and Buonaparte (1750 - 1835)
Siblings: Joseph Bonaparte, originally Giuseppe Buonaparte (1768 - 1844)
Lucien Bonaparte, originally Luciano Buonaparte (1775 - 1840)
Elisa Bacciochi, née Maria Anna Buonaparte/Bonaparte (1777 - 1820)
Louis Bonaparte, originally Luigi Buonaparte (1778 - 1846)
Pauline Borghese, née Maria Paola/Paoletta Buonaparte/Bonaparte (1780 - 1825)
Caroline Murat, née Maria Annunziata Buonaparte/Bonaparte (1782 - 1839)
Jérôme Bonaparte, originally Girolamo Buonaparte (1784 - 1860)
Wives: Josephine Bonaparte, née de la Pagerie and Beauharnais (1763 - 1814)
Marie-Louise Bonaparte, formally of Austria, later von Neipperg (1791 - 1847)
Notable Lovers: Countess Marie Walewska (d. 1817)
Legitimate Children: Napoleon II (1811 - 1832)
Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon 1st of France.
Originally Napoleone Buonaparte, also unofficially known as The Little Corporal (Le Petit Caporal) and The Corsican. More on 'Was Napoleon Short?'
Dates:
Born: 15th August 1769 in Ajaccio, Corsica
Married (Josephine): 9th March 1796 in Paris, France
Married (Marie-Louise): 2nd April 1810 in Paris, France
Died: 5th May 1821 on St. Helena
First Consul of France: 1799 - 1804
Emperor of the French: 1804 - 1814, 1815
Biography of Napoleon Bonaparte:
One of the greatest military commanders and a risk taking gambler; a workaholic genius and an impatient short term planner; a vicious cynic who forgave his closest betrayers; a misogynist who could enthrall men; Napoleon Bonaparte was all of these and more, the twice-emperor of France whose military endeavors and sheer personality dominated Europe in person for a decade, and in thought for a century.
Birth in Corsica
Napoleon was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15th 1769 to Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer and political opportunist, and his wife, Marie-Letizia. The Buonaparte's were a wealthy family from the Corsican nobility, although when compared to the great aristocracies of France Napoleon's kin were poor and pretentious. A combination of Carlo's social climbing, Letizia's adultery with the Comte de Marbeuf - Corsica's French military governor - and Napoleon's own ability enabled him to enter the military academy at Brienne in 1779. He moved to the Parisian École Royale Militaire in 1784 and graduated a year later as a second lieutenant in the artillery. Spurred on by his father's death in February 1785, the future emperor had completed in one year a course that often took three.
Early Career: The Corsican Misadventure
Despite being posted on the French mainland, Napoleon was able to spend much of the next eight years in Corsica thanks to his ferocious letter writing and rule bending, as well as the effects of the French Revolution and sheer good luck. There he played an active part in political and military matters, initially supporting the Corsican rebel Pasquale Paoli, a former patron of Carlo Buonaparte. Military promotion also followed, but Napoleon became opposed to Paoli and when civil war erupted in 1793 the Buonapartes fled to France, where they adopted the French version of their name: Bonaparte. Historians have frequently used the Corsican affair as a microcosm of Napoleon's career.
Early Career: Fluctuating Success
The French Revolution had decimated the republic's officer class and favoured individuals could achieve swift promotion, but Napoleon's fortunes rose and fell as one set of patrons came and went. By December 1793 Bonaparte was the hero of Toulon, a General and favourite of Augustin Robespierre; shortly after the wheel of revolution turned and Napoleon was arrested for treason. Tremendous political 'flexibility' saved him and the patronage of Vicomte Paul de Baras, soon to be one of France's three 'Directors', followed.
Napoleon became a hero again in 1795, defending the government from angry counter-revolutionary forces; Baras rewarded Napoleon by promoting him to high military office, a position with access to the political spine of France. Bonaparte swiftly grew into one of the country's most respected military authorities - largely by never keeping his opinions to himself - and he married Josephine de Beauharnais. Commentators have considered this an unusual match ever since.
Napoleon and The Army of Italy
In 1796 France attacked Austria. Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy - the post he wanted - whereupon he welded a young, starving and disgruntled army into a force which won victory after victory against, theoretically stronger, Austrian opponents. Aside from the Battle of Arcole, where Napoleon was lucky rather than clever, the campaign is legitimately legendary. Napoleon returned to France in 1797 as the nation's brightest star, having fully emerged from the need for a patron. Ever a great self-publicist, he maintained the profile of a political independent, thanks partly to the newspapers he now ran.
Failure in the Middle East, Power in France
In May 1798 Napoleon left for a campaign in Egypt and Syria, prompted by his desire for fresh victories, the French need to threaten Britain's empire in India and the Directory's concerns that their famous general might seize power. The Egyptian campaign was a military failure (although it had a great cultural impact) and a change of government in France caused Bonaparte to leave - some might say abandon - his army and return in the August of 1799. Shortly after he took part in the Brumaire coup of November 1799, finishing as a member of the Consulate, France's new ruling triumvirate.
First Consul
The transfer of power might not have been smooth - owing much to luck and apathy - but Napoleon's great political skill was clear; by February 1800 he was established as the First Consul, a practical dictatorship with a constitution wrapped firmly around him. However, France was still at war with her fellows in Europe and Napoleon set out to beat them. He did so within a year, although the key triumph - the Battle of Marengo, fought in June 1800 - was won by the French General Desaix.
From Reformer to Emperor
Having concluded treaties that left Europe at peace Bonaparte began working on France, reforming the economy, legal system (the famous and enduring Code Napoleon), church, military, education and government. He studied and commented on minute details, often while travelling with the army, and the reforms continued for most of his rule. Bonaparte exhibited an undeniable skill as both legislator and statesmen - a study of these achievements could rival those of his campaigns for size and depth - but many have argued that this talent was deeply flawed and even fervent supporters admit that Napoleon made mistakes. The Consul's popularity remained high - helped by his mastery of propaganda, but also genuine national support - and he was elected Consulate for life by the French people in 1802 and Emperor of France in 1804, a title which Bonaparte worked hard to maintain and glorify.
A Return to War
Nevertheless, Europe was not at peace for long. Napoleon's fame, ambitions and character were based on conquest, making it almost inevitable that his reorganised Grande Armée would fight further wars. However, other European countries also sought conflict, for not only did they distrust and fear Bonaparte, they also retained their hostility towards revolutionary France. If either side has sought peace, the battles would still have continued.
For the next eight years Napoleon dominated Europe, fighting and defeating a range of alliances involving combinations of Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia. Sometimes his victories were crushing - such as Austerlitz in 1805, often cited as the greatest military victory ever - and on other occasions he was either very lucky, fought almost to a standstill, or both; Wagram stands as an example of the latter. Bonaparte forged new states in Europe, including the German Confederation - built from the ruins of the Holy Roman Empire - and the Duchy of Warsaw, whilst also installing his family and favourites in positions of great power: Murat became King of Naples and Bernadotte King of Sweden, the latter in spite of his frequent treachery and failure. The reforms continued and Bonaparte had an ever-increasing effect on culture and technology, becoming a patron of both the arts and sciences while stimulating creative responses across Europe.
Napoleon’s Failings
Napoleon also made mistakes and suffered setbacks. The French navy was kept firmly in check by their British equivalent and the Emperor's attempt to tame Britain through economics - the Continental System - harmed France and her supposed allies greatly. Bonaparte's interference in Spain caused even larger problems, as the Spanish refused to accept Napoleon's brother Joseph as ruler, instead fighting a vicious guerilla war against the French invaders.
The Spanish 'ulcer' highlights another problem of Bonaparte's reign: he couldn't be everywhere within his empire at once, and the forces he sent to pacify Spain failed, as they often did elsewhere. Meanwhile, British forces gained a toehold in Portugal, slowly fighting their way across the peninsula and drawing ever more troops and resources from France itself. Nevertheless, these were Napoleon's glory days, and on March 11th 1810 he married his second wife, Marie-Louise; his only legitimate child - Napoleon II - was born just over a year later, on March 20th 1811.
1812: Napoleon’s Disaster in Russia
The Napoleonic Empire may have shown signs of decline by 1811, including a downturn in diplomatic fortunes and continuing failure in Spain, but such matters were overshadowed by what happened next. In 1812 Napoleon went to war with Russia, assembling a force of over 400,000 soldiers, accompanied by the same number of followers and support. Such an army was almost impossible to feed or adequately control and the Russians repeatedly retreated, destroying the local resources and separating Bonaparte from his supplies.
The Emperor continually dithered, eventually reaching Moscow on September 8th after the Battle of Borodino, a bludgeoning conflict where over 80,000 soldiers died. However, the Russians refused to surrender, instead torching Moscow and forcing Napoleon into a long retreat back to friendly territory. The Grande Armée was assailed by starvation, extremes of weather and terrifying Russian partisans throughout, and by the end of 1812 only 10,000 soldiers were able to fight. Many of the rest had died in horrible conditions, with the camp's followers faring even worse.
In the final half of 1812 Napoleon had destroyed most of his army, suffered a humiliating retreat, made an enemy of Russia, obliterated France's stock of horses and shattered his reputation. A coup had been attempted in his absence and his enemies in Europe were re-invigorated, forming a grand alliance intent on removing him. As vast numbers of enemy soldiers advanced across Europe towards France, over-turning the states Bonaparte had created, the Emperor raised, equipped and fielded a new army. This was a remarkable achievement but the combined forces of Russia, Prussia, Austria and others just used a simple plan, retreating from the emperor himself and advancing again when he moved to face the next threat.
1813-1814 and Abdication
Throughout 1813 and into 1814 the pressure grew on Napoleon; not only were his enemies grinding his forces down and approaching Paris, but the British had fought out of Spain and into France, the Grande Armée's Marshalls were underperforming and Bonaparte had lost the French public's support. Nevertheless, for the first half of 1814 Napoleon exhibited the military genius of his youth, but it was a war he couldn't win alone. On March 30th, 1814, Paris surrendered to allied forces without a fight and, facing massive betrayal and impossible military odds, Napoleon abdicated as Emperor of France; he was exiled to the Island of Elba.
The 100 Days and Exile
Undoubtedly bored and aware of the continuing discontent in France, Napoleon made a sensational return to power in 1815. Travelling to France in secret, he attracted vast support and reclaimed his Imperial throne, as well as re-organising the army and government. This was anathema to his enemies and after a series of initial engagements Bonaparte was narrowly defeated in one of history's greatest battles: Waterloo.
This final adventure had occurred in less than 100 days, closing with Napoleon's second abdication on June 25th 1815, whereupon British forces forced him into further exile. Housed on St. Helena, a small rocky island well away from Europe, Napoleon's health and character fluctuated; he died within six years, on May 5th 1821, aged 51. The causes of his death have been debated ever since, and conspiracy theories involving poison are rife.
Conclusion
Simple narratives of Napleon's life can fill whole books, let alone detailed discussions of his achievements, and historians remain divided over the Emperor: was he a cruel tyrant or an enlightened despot? Was he a tortured genius or a blunderer with luck on his side? These discussions are unlikely to be resolved, thanks partly to the weight of source material - making it unlikely that a historian could truly master everything - and Napoleon himself.
He is, and remains, so fascinating precisely because he was such a massive blend of contradictions - itself prohibiting conclusions - and because of the massive effect he had on Europe: no one should forget that he helped first perpetuate, then actively create, a state of European wide-warfare that lasted for twenty years. Few individuals have ever had such a huge effect on the world, on economics, politics, technology, culture and society, making Bonaparte's life more fantastic than any believable fiction.
Nevertheless, it is possible to attempt a small summary on his character: Napoleon may not have been a general of utter genius, but he was very good; he may not have been the best politician of his age, but he was often superb; he may not have been a perfect legislator, but his contributions were hugely important. Whether you admire him or hate him, the real and undoubted genius of Napoleon, the qualities that have drawn praise such as Promethean, was to combine all these talents, to have somehow - be it luck, talent or force of will - risen from chaos, then built, steered and spectacularly destroyed an empire before doing it all again in a tiny microcosm one year later. Whether hero or tyrant, the reverberations were felt across Europe for a century.
Notable Family of Napoleon Bonaparte:
Father: Carlo Buonaparte (1746-85)
Mother: Marie-Letizia Bonaparte, née Ramolino and Buonaparte (1750 - 1835)
Siblings: Joseph Bonaparte, originally Giuseppe Buonaparte (1768 - 1844)
Lucien Bonaparte, originally Luciano Buonaparte (1775 - 1840)
Elisa Bacciochi, née Maria Anna Buonaparte/Bonaparte (1777 - 1820)
Louis Bonaparte, originally Luigi Buonaparte (1778 - 1846)
Pauline Borghese, née Maria Paola/Paoletta Buonaparte/Bonaparte (1780 - 1825)
Caroline Murat, née Maria Annunziata Buonaparte/Bonaparte (1782 - 1839)
Jérôme Bonaparte, originally Girolamo Buonaparte (1784 - 1860)
Wives: Josephine Bonaparte, née de la Pagerie and Beauharnais (1763 - 1814)
Marie-Louise Bonaparte, formally of Austria, later von Neipperg (1791 - 1847)
Notable Lovers: Countess Marie Walewska (d. 1817)
Legitimate Children: Napoleon II (1811 - 1832)
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